Celts, Romans and the Kingdom of Elmet

Ancient Celts

There is evidence of occupation of the British Isles including the region which was to become Yorkshire, after the retreat of the last ice age around about 10,000-15,000 years ago. Known as the Magdalenians, these groups probably crossed a land bridge called “Doggerland”, that stretched across the North Sea, giving access to Britain from modern Belgium, Netherlands and Denmark. They were almost certainly following the movement of herds of large animals, such as wild horses and reindeer, which they hunted for food. Hollowed out cups from the period, made from the bones of human skulls, have been found in caves and it has been suggested that these migrants may have been cannibalistic.

As the forests grew, the early migrants were followed by small populations with an entirely different diet, the hunter-gatherers, who travelled by boat from south-east Europe. These nomadic people have not left any remains of permanent settlement.

Bronze-Age (3300-1200 BC) tribes also migrated to the British Isles, by boat, from mainland Europe. The remains of five boats from the period have been excavated in the Humber estuary at Ferriby. Permanent settlement and agriculture now appear and soon afterwards burial sites, such as earth mounds, wooden or stone henges. Hundreds of “cup and ring” carvings have been identified in West Yorkshire, giving evidence about the populations who lived here in the Bronze Age.

From 2000 BC, sheep were kept in Yorkshire, and the inhabitants wove fleece into textiles and developed dyes from locally sourced insects, minerals and plants. Bronze Age people kept animals to provide milk, meat and hides. Cattle could also be used to pull ploughs. Domestic horses and dogs appear in excavations. From the late Bronze Age, there is evidence that more people are living in village communities, like one identified at Stanwick in North Yorkshire. Each tribe settled in a specific area…and evidence found of manufacture of military equipment suggests that they were also warlike and territorial.

So we find Celtic tribes known as the Parisii (who may have been of French origin) controlled the East of what was to become Yorkshire, later to become the East Riding. The west of the territory, which became the Kingdom of Elmet (believed to have been centred on Loidis (Leeds) was occupied by people descended from the tribe of the Corieltauvi/Coritani, and this was to become the West Riding. The North Riding was occupied by people descending from the Brigantes.

Romans

In both 55 and 54 BC, Julius Caesar invaded Britain with the aim of conquest. But revolt in Gaul had called him away before he had beaten the Britons. The Roman conquest of Britain was a gradual process, beginning in AD 43, under Emperor Claudius, when 40,000 Imperial soldiers landed in Britain under Aulus Plautius. 

The Romans gradually made inroads and ruled a large area of the island of Great Britain but their grip on Yorkshire was mainly in the east and north.

It is thought that the West of Yorkshire did not become Romanised to any great extent. There is some archaeological evidence of Romans around Leeds, especially at Adel, and also at Tadcaster but much more has been found at York…and of course, the Romans built forts along their road from Chester via Manchester to York.

Related Content: The Road Over the Top: Castleshaw and Slack Roman Forts and the Mystery of Cambodunum

The Romans began to leave parts of Britain in 383 AD. By 410 AD, all Roman-held territories in Britain had been relinquished, as they retreated to defend their European territories against an army of Visigoths (northern European “barbarian” tribesmen), who were attacking other parts of the Roman Empire. This left the inhabitants of Britain to fight the invading Jutes, Angles and Saxons on their own.

The Romans having now withdrawn their Forces and abandon’d Britain, the whole frame of affairs fell into great disorder and misery; Barbarians invading it on one hand, and the Inhabitants breaking out into factions on the other; whilst each one was usurping the Government to himself…

Britannia, first published in 1586 by William Camden, Second Edition translated and revised by Edmund Gibson 1722

Celtic Kingdoms of Yr Henn Ogledd (The Old North)

Although some indigenous Celtic tribes in the north are thought to have continued resisting Roman rule from hill forts, many leaders chose to maintain peace by paying tribute to the Roman Empire. This tribute, often in the form of gold, silver, or goods, secured certain freedoms and rights. In doing so, Celtic chieftains were able to preserve their existing social structures throughout the Roman period.

Following the decline of Roman authority, much of Britain was gradually settled by so-called “barbarian” Germanic tribes, the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons, who later became known collectively as the Anglo-Saxons. However, the Celts re-established control in many northern regions. Their tribal traditions, with roots extending back to the pre-Iron Age, began to re-emerge. Local elites, likely descended from groups such as the Brigantes and the Corieltauvi (Coritani), governed the area, maintaining order while making use of Roman infrastructure to support communication and authority.

Yr Hen Ogledd, meaning “The Old North”, was a group of such small Celtic kingdoms. These kingdoms extended from present-day Lancashire and Yorkshire to the Lothians and Strathclyde. They shared cultural practices and spoke a common Brittonic language, the ancestor of modern Welsh. Even today, some place names in West Yorkshire reflect this linguistic heritage, showing clear connections to modern Welsh.

The Ebruac ruled territory around York and the short-lived Kingdom of Dunoting existed around Craven. Across the north-west was the Kingdom of Reghed. Beyond Hadrian’s wall was a Britonnic tribe, known as the Gododdin, whose territory extended northwards beyond Edinburgh. In the South Pennines were the Pec-sætna, or “Peak dwellers”…whose territory was what we now term the “Peak District”. These Post-Roman Celtic Kingdoms included the Britonnic Kingdom of Elmet, which is where we now turn our attention.

The Britonnic Kingdom of Elmet

This Celtic resurgence occurred during a time of immense geopolitical shift. After the decline of the Roman Empire, large parts of Britain were gradually taken over by “barbarian” tribes of Germanic descent, the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons, who would later be called the “Anglo-Saxons.”

The population, known as the Elmed Sætna, preserved a distinct identity rooted in earlier tribal traditions. Their territory drew on lands once associated with the Corieltauvi and Brigantes, and it developed into a coherent kingdom centred on Loidis, the Celtic name for Leeds. The natural landscape defined its boundaries. To the west lay Saddleworth, high in the Pennine hills, a formidable barrier of moorland and ridge. To the east stretched lower ground marked by the defensive earthworks known as Aberford Dykes and waterlogged marshlands, possibly as far as the Trent, that became increasingly contested. The River Wharfe marked a broad northern limit, while the southern boundary extended towards the rivers Sheaf and Don. Woodland covered much of the region, which was later recorded as the “Silva Elmete”, and within it lay farmland, pastures and established settlements.

Dynastic Ties and Regional Trade

Elmet stood alongside neighbours such as Rheged (Cumbria and North Lancadhire) and Dunoting (Craven) and the Pec-sætna, sharing culture and kinship ties. Trade linked these regions and extended further afield. Evidence of this reach appears in a grave inscription found in Gwynedd, which commemorates an Elmetian named Aliotus. Such links suggest movement of people and exchange of goods across considerable distances.

During the later fifth century, these connections strengthened through dynastic ties. Around 470 AD, Meirchion Gul ruled in Rheged, and his brother Mascuid became first King of Elmet. This arrangement reinforced the relationship between the two kingdoms and gave added cohesion to Brittonic power in the north. For a time, Elmet prospered within this network of allied territories.

The Gathering Storm: The Anglian Advance

Through the sixth century, Anglian groups, who collectively with the Saxons became known as the Anglo-Saxons, settled across eastern Britain and advanced steadily westward. They established a series of kingdoms that reshaped the political landscape, with Deira (alias Deifr or Dewyr) emerging in east, Bernicia to the north, and Mercia in the Midlands. Around 580, Ebruac (Roman Eboracum, modern York) and its surrounding territories fell to the Angles. Ebruac became known as Eoforwic.

This shift brought the Anglo-Saxon frontier directly to Elmet’s northeastern boundary. As a result, Elmet stood as a frontier kingdom between the Brittonic north and the advancing Anglian states, forming a bridge between rival territories while facing sustained and increasing pressure along its borders.

In response, the Brittonic kingdoms sought to unify. Around 590, Elmet joined with Rheged and Dunoting to form an alliance intended to resist further expansion. The union gathered strength from shared purpose, though it depended upon cooperation between powerful leaders. Within a short time, rivalry between leasders became division. Dynod Fawr of Dunoting and Urien Rheged, grandson of Meirchion Gul, the late 5th-century king of Rheged, were involved in this rivalry. Urien achieved success against Bernicia, though conflict within the alliance ended his life when he was assassinated by a rival Celt. His son Owain mab Urien succeeded him, yet divisions persisted.

Events moved rapidly. By 595, Dunoting fell to Bernicia, creating a physical separation between Rheged and Elmet. In the same period, Owain mab Urien died in battle against Morcant, the man associated with his father’s death. At roughly the same time, the Pec Sætna (people of the Peak), who lived to the south in the region now known as the Peak District, also lost their territory to incoming powers. Elmet’s southern edge stood open, and its neighbours weakened.

In 597, conflict continued across the north. Rheged came under attack but survived, while Catraeth, identified with the former Roman centre at Catterick, fell into Anglian control. This series of developments reduced the cohesion of Brittonic lands. Territories grew smaller and more isolated as Anglo-Saxon forces advanced.

The Battle of Catraeth and the Tale of Y Gododdin

Amid this pressure, a final effort at unity emerged. Around 598, the Gododdin, a Brittonic kingdom based in the lowlands of what is now Scotland, gathered support for a large campaign. Their king, Mynyddawg Mwynfawr, called upon allied rulers across the Old North to join him at Din Eidyn, a stronghold associated with Edinburgh, where they planned to retake Catraeth and restore their territories. Warriors travelled to Din Eidyn from the northern Celtic kingdoms, including Elmet and Rheged.

Accounts are preserved in the poem “Y Gododdin”, written about 600 AD, by Aneurin, himself from the Gododdin of the Strathclyde area. It tells the story of the Brittonic Kingdom of Gododdin and its allies who fought the Angles of Deira and Bernicia at Cattraeth.

His poem is written in a Common Brittonic language and so it is often mistakenly referred to as a “Welsh poem”. Aneurin appears to have been present at Cattraeth in the capacity of a Bard, a professional storyteller (like an embedded journalist). Though not a warrior, he says that he was wounded and imprisoned in chains during the conflict, until rescued. A first translation of his work into English was made in c1200 AD.

The Gathering of Chieftains

Aneurin tells that the warriors spent a period in preparation, feasting and forming bonds of loyalty before setting out. The combined Celtic army comprised more than three hundred chieftains wearing their golden torques, each with his own retinue of fighting men. In support was the army of the “Elmet sætna” (the Elmet dwellers), their nobles and warriors plus foot soldiers, under the leadership of Madoc of Elmet.

Mynyddawg’s retinue consisted of “three hundred”; there were “five battalions of five hundred men each”, “three levies of three hundred each”, “three bold knights” had each “three hundred of equal quality” thus averaging about four hundred for each commander, which, multiplied by three hundred and sixty three (commanders), would exhibit an overwhelming army of a hundred and forty five thousand, and two hundred men!

From “A Poem on THE BATTLE OF CATTRAETH, by ANEURIN, a bard of the sixth century, English translation”

A Week of Bloodshed

Around the year 599 or 600, the combined army marched south towards Catraeth. The Angles held this strategic position, and the confrontation drew together rival forces of considerable strength. The night before the battle saw the Brittonic warriors drink wine and mead, a detail recorded by the bard Aneurin. At dawn, under the leadership of Mynyddawg, they advanced into battle. The fighting lasted for a full week. Early stages saw both sides contesting fiercely, with periods of advantage shifting between them. The Brittonic forces inflicted heavy losses and made gains on the field. At one point, a proposal for a truce came from the opposing side, yet the offer was rejected and the battle resumed. In the closing days, the struggle intensified, and heavy losses occurred across the ranks.

In Aneurin’s words:

The engagement commenced on a Tuesday, and continued for a whole week, the last four days being the most bloody. For some time both parties fought gallantly, and with almost equal success; fortune perhaps upon the whole appearing to favour the Cymry (Celts), who not only slew a vast number of their adversaries, but partially succeeded in recovering their lost dominions. At this critical juncture a dwarfish herald arrived at the fence, proposing on the part of the Saxons a truce or compact, which, however, was indignantly rejected by the natives, and the action renewed. The scales now rapidly turned. In one part of the field such a terrible carnage ensued, that there was but one man left to scare away the birds of prey, which hovered over the carcases of the slain.

From “A Poem on THE BATTLE OF CATTRAETH, by ANEURIN, a Welsh bard of the sixth century, English Translation”

The Aftermath of Defeat

In the end, the Brittonic army suffered a devastating defeat. Many of its leaders fell on the field, and the poem records that only a small number of the warriors escaped. Aneurin commemorated their names and deeds, honouring their courage and sacrifice. Among the dead was Madoc of Elmet, a chieftain who took part in the campaign. The scale of the losses affected the leadership and military strength of the northern Brittonic kingdoms. Unfortunately, no archaeological evidence of the burial site has been discovered to date.

Following this defeat, the Gododdin came under the control of Deira and Bernicia. Elmet and Rheged continued as independent kingdoms, though their weakened condition left them vulnerable. Elmet’s territory was reduced in size to territory between Danum (Doncaster) and Loidis (Leeds). Even so, it remained a distinct political entity at the turn of the seventh century.

Within Elmet itself, the response to mounting pressure included the strengthening of defensive sites. Barwick in Elmet became a central stronghold, where earlier earthworks saw renewal and expansion. Timber palisades rose along existing banks, and the site functioned as a court and gathering place for rulers and warriors. Across the eastern approaches, earthworks such as those near Aberford, north of Leeds, created barriers that shaped the movement of people and armies. These constructions drew on collective effort and reflected organised authority.

During this period, Elmet also took part in the wider cultural world of the Old North. Its rulers featured in poetry associated with figures such as Taliesin, who praised kings across the Brittonic landscape. Gwallog ap Llaennog, linked with Elmet, gained recognition as a warrior and leader. Poems described campaigns along the River Wharfe and close to contested frontiers.

Kingdom of Northumbria

As the seventh century began, political change accelerated. The kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia united under powerful rulers, forming Northumbria. This new state directed its attention towards remaining independent territories. Elmet lay directly in its path.

Events surrounding Elmet’s fall centred on a diplomatic crisis. Edwin, who would become King of Northumbria, had spent time in exile among various courts. During this period, his nephew Hereric found refuge in Elmet under the protection of its last king, Ceredig ap Gwallog (Ceretic), known as “King of the Britons”. While there, Hereric died by poisoning.

In 616, Edwin secured the throne of Northumbria. In 617, in response to the death of his nephew, he launched a campaign against Elmet. The fortified lines and strongholds that had served against earlier threats now faced a large, organised force. Ceretic was driven from his kingdom and died in exile. With his removal, the political independence of Elmet ended.

Edwin, (ruler of Northumbria) reigned for seventeen years and he occupied Elmet and expelled Ceretic (son of Guallauc), the King of this region.

Nennius

Elmet was the last Celtic Kingdom in Yorkshire to become incorporated into Northumbria.
Rheged, in the North West, also succumbed within a generation.

Elmet was incorporated into Northumbria and Edwin established authority. A royal centre known as Cambodunum (alias Campodunum) formed part of this new structure, serving administrative and political functions. In 627, Edwin adopted Christianity, and a church arose within his domains. These developments marked a new phase in the region’s history under Northumbrian rule.

In 633, further change came with the death of Edwin at the Battle of Hatfield Chase. Forces led by Penda of Mercia and Cadwallon of Gwynedd defeated him. In the aftermath, Cadwallon’s army burned Cambodunum. The site’s church suffered destruction, though accounts record that its stone altar survived and found preservation within a monastic community located within the former woodland of Elmet.

The Enduring Legacy of Elmet

Despite these political transformations, the legacy of Elmet endured in landscape and language, even DNA in. Under Anglo-Saxon rule, it seems that the Elmet-sætna continued to reside in what is now West Yorkshire, remaining as a distinct genetic group throughout the Anglo-Saxon period, until it became part of the Danelaw under the Vikings. More than a thousand years after the Vikings left, Elmet’s genetic footprint has survived in the people of West Yorkshire, to the present day.

Recent DNA studies indicate a striking correlation between the inhabitants of Elmet, in the "Dark Ages", and genetic characteristics in West Yorkshire today, where Britons are "still living in the same 'tribes' that they lived in during the 7th Century". See "Who do you think you are?" at this link.  

Place names preserved the memory of the kingdom. Settlements such as Barwick in Elmet, Sherburn in Elmet, Scholes in Elmet, and others, carried the name into later centuries. The name Loidis remained in use and developed into Leeds. Rivers retained their earlier Brittonic names, including the Aire and Calder, linking the past with the present.

Communities also continued in place. The people described as Wealas within Anglo Saxon records represented the surviving Brittonic population. Names such as Walton and Walsden reflected their presence. Agricultural practices, settlement patterns and local traditions passed through generations, adapting within new political structures.

By the time of the Domesday survey in 1086, these continuities still remained visible. Categories of landholding such as drengs and radmen reflected older arrangements that echoed earlier customs of tribute and service. The landscape itself showed patterns established in earlier times, with settlements linked to both valley and upland resources.

Over the centuries that followed, the political identity of Elmet faded, yet its imprint remained clear. The name survived in administrative use, in the mapping of political constituencies, and in the continued recognition of the region’s distinct character. Writers and poets later drew on this heritage, seeing in the hills and valleys a connection to an older world.

The story of Elmet, when told in sequence, follows a path from the Roman frontier through Brittonic kingdom to incorporation within a larger English realm. Its people shaped the land, defended it, and left enduring traces in names, culture and memory.

Updated and expanded June 2026